Components Of A Petrol Engine Engineering Essay

Components Of A Petrol Engine Engineering Essay Introduction: Petrol Engine was developed by the German engineers Karl Benz and Gottlieb Daimler in 1885. This invention was considered to be one of the greatest achievements in the automotive industry. A petrol engine uses petrol typically known as gasoline in the United States, as a fuel. Inside the engine, the burning of fuel coupled with air forces the hot gases to expand against various parts of the engine and cause them to move. Hence, petrol engines are termed as internal-combustion engines. Additionally, petrol engines are highly compact and lightweight for the power produced by them. The rate at which it generates work is typically computed in horse power or watts  [1]  . In essence, a petrol engine is seen as a composite piece of machinery that comprises of as much as 150 moving parts. Moreover, it is a reciprocating piston engine, wherein a multiple pistons are seen moving up and down within cylinders. For the working of the petrol engine, a mixture of air and petrol is introduced into space surrounding the piston and is then ignited. Then, the gases produced push the pistons down, thereby producing power. This engine-operating cycle repeats itself after every four strokes, either downward or upward movement of the piston, and this is termed as the four-stroke cycle. Further, the movement of the pistons causes the crankshaft to rotate, which has a heavy flywheel attached at its terminal. From the flywheel the power is transmitted to the cars driving through the transmission of clutch, gear system, and final drive  [2]  . The primary purpose of this report is to provide a profound knowledge about lightweight petrol engines. The study outlines the use of various components used for the manufacturing and the production of lightweight petrol engines. It discusses the properties that make these materials most appropriate for constructing lightweight engines. The following section focuses on the primary components of the lightweight petrol engine Parts of a Petrol Engine: The major components of the petrol engine can be categorized into a number of systems: The Fuel System: The fuel system is responsible for pumping fuel from the petrol tank into the carburettor, where it mixes with air and gets sucked into the engine cylinders. Further, with the help of electronic fuel injection, it traverses directly into the cylinders from the tank through an electronic monitor. The ignition system: This system supplies the sparks in order to ignite the fuel mixture within the cylinders. It boosts the 12-volt battery voltage by means of an ignition coil and contact breaker, up to the rates of 18,000 volts or greater. Through a distributor, these pulses then travel to the spark plugs inside the cylinders, where they can produce the sparks. Due to the ignition of the fuel inside the cylinders, temperatures of approximately 700 or more are produced, when the engine must be cooled to avoid overheating  [3]  . Water-cooling system: Almost all engines nowadays have a water-cooling system, which allows circulation of water through channels within the cylinder block, thereby extracting the heat. The water flows through pipes within a radiator, which is cooled by fan-blown air. Most motorcycles and cars are air-cooled, where the cylinders are surrounding by several fins to offer a large surface area for the air. The Lubrication system: This system also reduces some amount of heat; however, it main job is keeping the moving parts of the engine coated with adequate oil, which is continuously pumped under pressure to the crankshaft, valve-operating gear as well as the camshaft  [4]  . The underlying principle behind the working of any reciprocating internal combustion engine is that if a small amount of high-energy fuel such as gasoline is placed in a small, enclosed space and ignited, it produces an incredible amount of energy in the form of expanding gas. This released energy can be used to propel a potato 500 feet. For such cases, the energy is converted into potato motion. This energy can also be used for more productive purposes, such as if one creates a cycle which allows explosions to set off like hundreds of times per minute, and if that energy is harnessed is a profitable way, then you have the core of the car engine  [5]  . Figure 1: Parts of a Petrol Engine Most cars today use what is commonly known as a four-stroke combustion engine, as aforementioned, in order to translate gasoline into motion. Further, the four-stroke approach is also called as Otto cycle, as invented by Nikolaus Otto in 1867  [6]  . The four basic strokes for working of a petrol engine are: The intake stroke The compression stroke The combustion stroke, and The exhaust stroke As shown in the figure below, a device known as piston replaces the potato of the potato cannon. As depicted, the piston is attached to a crankshaft by means of a connecting rod. Every time the crankshaft revolves, it has the impact of resetting the cannon  [7]  . When the piston starts at the top, it opens the intake valve and pushes the piston down to let the engine fill in air and gasoline, thereby making the intake stroke. Just the smallest drop of gasoline is mixed into the air for the intake stroke to take place. Next, the piston rotates back up in order to compress this fuel and air mixture. This compression stroke tends to make the explosion more powerful. When the piston reaches the peak of its stroke, a spark is produced by the spark plug for igniting the gasoline  [8]  . Then, the gasoline charge within the cylinder explodes, forcing the piston to move down. As soon as the piston reaches the bottom of its stroke, the exhaust valve is forced open and the exhaust eventually leaves the cylinder to exit from the tail pipe  [9]  . The engine is now ready to start the next cycle, hence it intakes yet another charge of gas and air. It can be noted that the movement coming out of an internal combustion engine is rotational, whereas the movement generated by a potato cannon is linear. This linear motion in an engine is translated into rotational motion by the crankshaft. Further, the rotational motion is appropriate since a car driver plans to turn or rotate the wheels of the car with it anyway. The force exerted from the expansion stroke travels through the axis of the rotor; it would not cause the rotor to rotate. But, it also passes via the centre of the eccentric portion of the main shaft and the resultant moment leads to the rotation of the shaft and as the rotor locks with the fixed pinion, it should also turn. The role of the shaft hence matches with that of the crankshaft within a reciprocating piston engine  [10]  . Perhaps, the design of the engine becomes complex that the aforesaid simplified description. Furthermore, efficient sealing arrangements taking place between the rotor and its housing are highly indispensible, with respect to the differential thermal expansion of the rotor and its housing. In addition, the construction of appropriate sealing systems was in use since the beginning period of petrol engines. These sealing systems or grids comprise of apex seals in order to keep the leakage of gas from one chamber to the other past the apices of the rotor, preferably attached to side seals in order to prevent any leaks from the side faces of the rotor and its end covers. However, experiences have indicated that apex seal lubrication is a complete loss system  [11]  . Earlier oil was added into the fuel but nowadays, it is more common to meter oil into the induction pipe with a separate pipe. Additionally, lubrication of the bearings, gears, and so on, of engine parts that have oil co oled rotors, is done using the oil circulating through the rotor. Engines that have charge cooled rotors contain the oil mist carried by the charge lubricate these parts  [12]  . Cylinder lies at the core of the engine, where the piston moves upwards and downwards in it. A four-stroke internal combustion engine consists of just one cylinder, which is typically used by most lawn mowers, but almost every car has more than one cylinder, commonly four, six and eight in number. An engine having multiple cylinders has its cylinders arranged in any of the three ways, namely inline, V or flat, as depicted in the diagram below. In an inline engine, the cylinders are arranged in a line in a single bank. Figure 2: Inline cylinders, where cylinders are arranged horizontally in a single line within a single bank In a V engine, cylinders are arranged in two banks set at an angle to one another. Figure 3: V shaped, where cylinder are placed in two banks set at a certain angle to each other In a flat engine, the cylinders are arranged in two banks on opposite sides of the engine. Figure 4: Flat shaped, where cylinders are placed within two banks set on opposite sides of the engine Different configurations are associated with different benefits and limitations in terms of manufacturing costs, smoothness, and shape features. Such advantages and disadvantages decide the appropriateness of the engine for specific vehicles. Internal combustion engines are comprised of a variety of parts, and every part holds its own location and function which may stimulate the functionality of other parts. The following section discusses the engine parts in detail:  [13]   Cylinder Block The Cylinder block is the bore of the cylinder where the fresh charge of air/fuel mixture is ignited, compressed by the piston and finally expanded to give the desired power to the piston. Cylinder Head Here, the inlet and the exhaust valve are carried. It admits the fresh charge of mixture through inlet valve and exhausts the burnet gas from the exhaust valve. A spark plug, in case of petrol engine and an injector for a diesel engine is mounted on cylinder head Spark plug The spark plug is responsible for supplying the spark for igniting the air-fuel mixture to enable the combustion to take place. The spark must occur at just the right instant of time for things to work accurately. Valves The intake and exhaust valves are opened at the perfect moment to let in air as well as fuel and to let out exhaust. It can be noted that both these valves are shut throughout compression and combustion so as to seal the combustion chamber  [14]  . Piston As aforesaid, the piston is a cylindrical metallic piece which moves up and down within the cylinder Piston Rings Piston rings offer a sliding closure between the external edge of piston and the internal edge of the cylinder. The piston rings have the following functions: The avoid leakage of the fuel-air mixture and the exhaust of the cylinder chamber, into the sump on compression and combustion processes Secondly, they also prevent the oil in the sump to leak out into the combustion area, in which it is burnt and lost  [15]  . Almost every car that burns oil and must need a quart added every 1,000 miles burn it since the engine is old enough and the rings do not seal anything properly  [16]   Connecting Rod The connecting rod acts as a connection between the piston and the crankshaft. Additionally, the rod can rotate at both ends so as to enable flexibility when its angle changes with the movement of the pistons and as the crankshaft rotates. Crankshaft The crankshaft converts the up and down motion of the piston into uniform circular motion similar to a crank in a jack-in-the-box does. Sump The sump is placed around the crankshaft and contains come quantity of oil that collects at the base of the sump. Carburettor The carburettor does the job of converting petrol in fine spray and mixing with air in proper ratio as demanded by the engine Fuel Injector The fuel injector is used only in diesel engines and gives out fuel in fine spray under pressure  [17]  . Manufacturing Processes: The aggregation of the design and manufacturing process is driven by implementations. These processes vary in detail in every manufacturing company. From the perspective of te turnkey industry, the following is the representation of that process: Conceptual Design: also termed as functional design or preliminary design, this process focuses not only on the aesthetic matters such as styling, but also on practical matters like simulation and industrial design to enable the overall manufacturing process. This stage involves an extensive use of paper and pencil, oils and brush, and sculptors clay as the primary tools of the conceptual designer in the automotive industry. Nowadays, modernized CAD/CAM systems offer the designer more and more powerful and robust tools which release him of the need to construct physical models and demonstrations. Companies such as Aries, Cognition, etc. have witnessed an opportunity to offer design engineers totally new and modern, computerized ways to look at the design engineering process, thereby providing methods and schemes which are way ahead of the conventional techniques and enable engineers to use much greater freedom of exercising their creativity  [18]  . In essence, photorealistic delivery output is gaining increasing popularity and is becoming a significant capability for conceptual design. In addition to allowing management to see the design as it would look after being manufactured, it also allows designers to try out different versions of the design without the need to have additional investments in effort and cost which conventional prototyping methods traditionally demand. Analysis and Refinement: A variety of high-level capabilities fall under this category. This technique is loosely termed as CAE, or just engineering,. Furthermore, processes like Finite Element Modelling and Analysis is effectively carried out as part of this engineering procedure. This stage of the refinement process that is purported to discuss a fundamental design to real-world limitations as well as to iterate on a given design until its behaviour is acceptable. Even in the constricted discipline of FEM and FEA, there exist several specialized disciplines. And these specialized can be fatigue analysis, and thermal, vibration and magnetic analysis. However, plastics, iso-plastics, as well as composites tend to make the analysis more complex. Indeed, the practice of finite-element analysis and modelling can be considered as one of the more practical applications upon which an existing design can be subjected; however there are a large number of others as well  [19]  . Additionally techniques or other disciplines of analysis such as interference analysis, mass properties, complying with safety and/or corporate regulations and standards, structure design and enforcement of local codes are all considered to be the requirements for a design to be satisfying, and typically, that design should successfully pass these analyses prior to being considered for construction or manufacturing. During the designing phase of an automobile, for instance, a primary issue which could hinder between the processes is the stress analysis, which is only related to major parts of the engine or body. More time-consuming and less cost-effective is the bio-technical design of windshields, panels of equipments and instrument, seats, and so on. A modern engine for water pump should not only be effective and generate a defined volume of water per minute; however, it must also be capable of fitting comfortably inside the various other components which constitute the engine. Design for Manufacture: This stage can also be termed as design modeling, and it another step in reality design. Usually, an alleged finished design is considered impractical to manufacture. Further, factors such as setup costs, coherency with current manufacturing techniques or excessive complexity can rule out the consideration of an otherwise good design, thereby causing that design to undergo significant modification. Essentially, a large number of applications are there which clearly satisfy this prerequisite. For instance, the lifetime of a stamping tool may tend to have a significant impact on the longer-term productivity of a segment that manufactures press parts; this prerequisite alone can have a great influence on its design. Furthermore, for the plastic injection process, a number of designs are immediately made infeasible because of their inability to be used for the realistic flow properties of the liquid plastic which is being injected within them at greater temperatures and pressures. Even a small difference of 5% in the injection process and cooling time for a complex mould is likely to a drastic difference among profitability and loss to an organization that functions with very little room to spare  [20]  . For any given practical availability of real machine equipments, pedestrian considerations including the planning and design of clamps for holding parts when they are being machined as well as machine-to-fit tolerances are accounted for make-or-break decisions for any manager or executive to make. And in addition to this area are component design, assembly verification, and mechanical and electronic design. Drafting and Documentation: In this world of AutoCAD, any efficient engine manufacturing process requires state-of-the-art documentation and drafting; however, this area depicts a relatively smaller portion of a mid-scale manufacturers CAD/CAM universe. Further, in-depth drafting is not a requirement more than one-third of the requirement. For this stage, technical demonstrations, schematics and diagrams, and layout are equally essential. Even before the days when geometrical models did not exist, in-depth drafting was used for representing the meat of any practical design. Because of the substantial limitations of existing design systems, most of the detail drafting might not appear across a geometric model. Consider the example of fillets and chamfers which can appear only as characteristics of models and can never be depicted as actual geometric models. If taken as a practical issue, it is relatively simpler to represent a fillet with the help of a symbol on a drawing, and then to removing a cut out by means of a single path from a ball-end mill, next is to go through the complex mathematics needed for representing it geometrically. And this is something known to and used by practical designers  [21]  . Several other aspects of the detail drafting process in engine manufacture is closely related to what we consider as drawing creation, and which has a primary purpose of aiding the final downstream machining process. Even though factors such as surface finish features, tolerance constraints, detail magnification, as well as other similar factors of detail drafting are not taken to be part of the geometrical model, yet they tend to become part of the entire depiction of the design by virtue of the accessibility offered to draftsmen, to the original model and the ability to work directly on a local presentation of it, although they are restricted to modify it. Therefore, draftsmen can be experts in drafting and drawing creation, without the need of being expert designers. Toolpath Creation Machining: This stage is also termed as manufacturing engineering, and it is one of the most complex and demanding processes. Framed equally with manufacturing preparation together with manufacturing simulation, most of the companies spend heavy budgetary amounts of their CAD/CAM budget. Further, manufacturing preparation involves design of tool, pattern nesting, designing of fixture, development of sheet metal, quality control analysis, as well as the actual NC programming itself  [22]  . Moreover, manufacturing simulation involves coordination of measuring machines, NC flame cutting, NC tube welding and bending, wire EDM, milling and drilling, off-line robotics, turning, and the most crucial portion of NC toolpath verification process. Although machining is essentially done directly off the model geometry, yet it cannot be considered as automatic by any means as per the demonstrations of it imply  [23]  . By most designers and industry experts, N/C is seen more of an art from rather than science; even old-fashioned schemes of creating machined parts have not been ignored. Construction of geometry is typically the simplest face of the N/C process. Because of the shortcoming witnessed in the algorithms provided by most vendors, work-arounds always have to be introduced, such as the power of the user to straight away edit the tool path that is being created. The main intention of Toolpath simulation is to let the user to have a look at the form of the completed portion which will emerge out of the machining process, and to directly correct any problems which are detected. Furthermore, the development and maintenance of postprocessors that convert geometric toolpath demonstrations into a language that can be understood by each machine tool, is an industry in itself. Installing the Rest of the Parts The various parts of engine are installed in the following way: Engines are made and installed at the manufacturers Engine shop. Castings of engine blocks, crankshafts as well as heads are obtained from suppliers and are machined into the vehicle with its exact specifications. More than 150 computer-controlled machines conduct precision cuts to such engine parts. In addition, a highly sophisticated test lab performs precision computer computations in order to ensure the machining procedure cuts and drills the metallic pieces to desired approximations. Once the machining and the precision measurement testing are done, the engine parts are placed across a conveyor system onto engine assembly at which team members go about detailing the procedure in order to assemble the pieces of the engine together  [24]  . In essence, all engines are initially cold-tested for determining any leaks, then, hot-tested by igniting the engine to make sure it adheres to the manufacturing specifications. The vehicle transmission is then married to the newly assemble d engine for completing the assembly process. Followed by final quality check, the engine is sent across on a trestle towards the chassis section where it is accompanied with the drive train and the remaining vehicle  [25]  . Firstly, the camshaft is installed followed by the accurate lining up of the timing marks. Then, the camshaft is forced up against the valves in order to force them open. Next, the rocker rods/arms and pushrods are installed. These pushrods and rocker arms will present the amount of torque specifications over the rocker arms, depending on the kind of engine. Further, the intake multiplier makes use of RTV across their gaskets in order to hold them firmly at their places. Lastly, the valve covers are laid across and the engine is placed within given the vehicle by means of bolts for protecting it into the engine compartment. Followed by this step, the remaining accessories are gradually installed, including the fuel injector, carburettor and the fuel pump  [26]  .

The Host Chapter 5: Uncomforted

Hello there, Wanderer! Won't you take a seat and make yourself at home?† I hesitated on the threshold of the Comforter's office, one foot in and one foot out. She smiled, just a tiny movement at the corners of her mouth. It was much easier to read facial expressions now; the little muscle twitches and shifts had become familiar through months of exposure. I could see that the Comforter found my reluctance a bit amusing. At the same time, I could sense her frustration that I was still uneasy coming to her. With a quiet sigh of resignation, I walked into the small brightly colored room and took my usual seat-the puffy red one, the one farthest from where she sat. Her lips pursed. To avoid her gaze, I stared through the open windows at the clouds scuttling past the sun. The faint tang of ocean brine blew softly through the room. â€Å"So, Wanderer. It's been a while since you've come to see me.† I met her eyes guiltily. â€Å"I did leave a message about that last appointment. I had a student who requested some of my time†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"Yes, I know.† She smiled the tiny smile again. â€Å"I got your message.† She was attractive for an older woman, as humans went. She'd let her hair stay a natural gray-it was soft, tending toward white rather than silver, and she wore it long, pulled back in a loose ponytail. Her eyes were an interesting green color I'd never seen on anyone else. â€Å"I'm sorry,† I said, since she seemed to be waiting for a response. â€Å"That's all right. I understand. It's difficult for you to come here. You wish so much that it wasn't necessary. It's never been necessary for you before. This frightens you.† I stared down at the wooden floor. â€Å"Yes, Comforter.† â€Å"I know I've asked you to call me Kathy.† â€Å"Yes†¦ Kathy.† She laughed lightly. â€Å"You are not at ease with human names yet, are you, Wanderer?† â€Å"No. To be honest, it seems†¦ like a surrender.† I looked up to see her nod slowly. â€Å"Well, I can understand why you, especially, would feel that way.† I swallowed loudly when she said that, and stared again at the floor. â€Å"Let's talk about something easier for a moment,† Kathy suggested. â€Å"Do you continue to enjoy your Calling?† â€Å"I do.† This was easier. â€Å"I've begun a new semester. I wondered if it would get tiresome, repeating the same material, but so far it doesn't. Having new ears makes the stories new again.† â€Å"I hear good things about you from Curt. He says your class is among the most requested at the university.† My cheeks warmed a bit at this praise. â€Å"That's nice to hear. How is your partner?† â€Å"Curt is wonderful, thank you. Our hosts are in excellent shape for their ages. We have many years ahead of us, I think.† I was curious if she would stay on this world, if she would move to another human host when the time came, or if she would leave. But I didn't want to ask any questions that might move us into the more difficult areas of discussion. â€Å"I enjoy teaching,† I said instead. â€Å"It's somewhat related to my Calling with the See Weeds, so that makes it easier than something unfamiliar. I'm indebted to Curt for requesting me.† â€Å"They're lucky to have you.† Kathy smiled warmly. â€Å"Do you know how rare it is for a Professor of History to have experienced even two planets in the curriculum? Yet you've lived a term on almost all of them. And the Origin, to boot! There isn't a school on this planet that wouldn't love to steal you away from us. Curt plots ways to keep you busy so you have no time to consider moving.† â€Å"Honorary Professor,† I corrected her. Kathy smiled and then took a deep breath, her smile fading. â€Å"You haven't been to see me in so long, I was wondering if your problems were resolving themselves. But then it occurred to me that perhaps the reason for your absence was that they were getting worse.† I stared down at my hands and said nothing. My hands were light brown-a tan that never faded whether I spent time in the sun or not. One dark freckle marked the skin just above my left wrist. My nails were cut short. I disliked the feeling of long nails. They were unpleasant when they brushed the skin wrong. And my fingers were so long and thin-the added length of fingernails made them look strange. Even for a human. She cleared her throat after a minute. â€Å"I'm guessing my intuition was right.† â€Å"Kathy.† I said her name slowly. Stalling. â€Å"Why did you keep your human name? Did it make you feel†¦ more at one? With your host, I mean?† I would have liked to know about Curt's choice as well, but it was such a personal question. It would have been wrong to ask anyone besides Curt for the answer, even his partner. I worried that I'd already been too impolite, but she laughed. â€Å"Heavens, no, Wanderer. Haven't I told you this? Hmm. Maybe not, since it's not my job to talk, but to listen. Most of the souls I speak with don't need as much encouragement as you do. Did you know I came to Earth in one of the very first placements, before the humans had any idea we were here? I had human neighbors on both sides. Curt and I had to pretend to be our hosts for several years. Even after we'd settled the immediate area, you never knew when a human might be near. So Kathy just became who I was. Besides, the translation of my former name was fourteen words long and did not shorten prettily.† She grinned. The sunlight slanting through the window caught her eyes and sent their silver green reflection dancing on the wall. For a moment, the emerald irises glowed iridescent. I'd had no idea that this soft, cozy woman had been a part of the front line. It took me a minute to process that. I stared at her, surprised and suddenly more respectful. I'd never taken Comforters very seriously-never had a need before now. They were for those who struggled, for the weak, and it shamed me to be here. Knowing Kathy's history made me feel slightly less awkward with her. She understood strength. â€Å"Did it bother you?† I asked. â€Å"Pretending to be one of them?† â€Å"No, not really. You see, this host was a lot to get used to-there was so much that was new. Sensory overload. Following the set pattern was quite as much as I could handle at first.† â€Å"And Curt†¦ You chose to stay with your host's spouse? After it was over?† This question was more pointed, and Kathy grasped that at once. She shifted in her seat, pulling her legs up and folding them under her. She gazed thoughtfully at a spot just over my head as she answered. â€Å"Yes, I chose Curt-and he chose me. At first, of course, it was random chance, an assignment. We bonded, naturally, from spending so much time together, sharing the danger of our mission. As the university's president, Curt had many contacts, you see. Our house was an insertion facility. We would entertain often. Humans would come through our door and our kind would leave. It all had to be very quick and quiet-you know the violence these hosts are prone to. We lived every day with the knowledge that we could meet a final end at any moment. There was constant excitement and frequent fear. â€Å"All very good reasons why Curt and I might have formed an attachment and decided to stay together when secrecy was no longer necessary. And I could lie to you, assuage your fears, by telling you that these were the reasons. But†¦Ã¢â‚¬  She shook her head and then seemed to settle deeper into her chair, her eyes boring into me. â€Å"In so many millennia, the humans never did figure love out. How much is physical, how much in the mind? How much accident and how much fate? Why did perfect matches crumble and impossible couples thrive? I don't know the answers any better than they did. Love simply is where it is. My host loved Curt's host, and that love did not die when the ownership of the minds changed.† She watched me carefully, reacting with a slight frown when I slumped in my seat. â€Å"Melanie still grieves for Jared,† she stated. I felt my head nod without willing the action. â€Å"You grieve for him.† I closed my eyes. â€Å"The dreams continue?† â€Å"Every night,† I mumbled. â€Å"Tell me about them.† Her voice was soft, persuasive. â€Å"I don't like to think about them.† â€Å"I know. Try. It might help.† â€Å"How? How will it help to tell you that I see his face every time I close my eyes? That I wake up and cry when he's not there? That the memories are so strong I can't separate hers from mine anymore?† I stopped abruptly, clenching my teeth. Kathy pulled a white handkerchief from her pocket and offered it to me. When I didn't move, she got up, walked over to me, and dropped it in my lap. She sat on the arm of my chair and waited. I held on stubbornly for half a minute. Then I snatched the little square of fabric angrily and wiped my eyes. â€Å"I hate this.† â€Å"Everybody cries their first year. These emotions are so impossible. We're all children for a bit, whether we intended that or not. I used to tear up every time I saw a pretty sunset. The taste of peanut butter would sometimes do that, too.† She patted the top of my head, then trailed her fingers gently through the lock of hair I always kept tucked behind my ear. â€Å"Such pretty, shiny hair,† she noted. â€Å"Every time I see you it's shorter. Why do you keep it that way?† Already in tears, I didn't feel like I had much dignity to defend. Why claim that it was easier to care for, as I usually did? After all, I'd come here to confess and get help-I might as well get on with it. â€Å"It bothers her. She likes it long.† She didn't gasp, as I half expected she would. Kathy was good at her job. Her response was only a second late and only slightly incoherent. â€Å"You†¦ She†¦ she's still that†¦ present?† The appalling truth tumbled from my lips. â€Å"When she wants to be. Our history bores her. She's more dormant while I'm working. But she's there, all right. Sometimes I feel like she's as present as I am.† My voice was only a whisper by the time I was done. â€Å"Wanderer!† Kathy exclaimed, horrified. â€Å"Why didn't you tell me it was that bad? How long has it been this way?† â€Å"It's getting worse. Instead of fading, she seems to be growing stronger. It's not as bad as the Healer's case yet-we spoke of Kevin, do you remember? She hasn't taken control. She won't. I won't let that happen!† The pitch of my voice climbed. â€Å"Of course it won't happen,† she assured me. â€Å"Of course not. But if you're this†¦ unhappy, you should have told me earlier. We need to get you to a Healer.† It took me a moment, emotionally distracted as I was, to understand. â€Å"A Healer? You want me to skip?† â€Å"No one would think badly of that choice, Wanderer. It's understood, if a host is defective -â€Å" â€Å"Defective? She's not defective. I am. I'm too weak for this world!† My head fell into my hands as the humiliation washed through me. Fresh tears welled in my eyes. Kathy's arm settled around my shoulders. I was struggling so hard to control my wild emotions that I didn't pull away, though it felt too intimate. It bothered Melanie, too. She didn't like being hugged by an alien. Of course Melanie was very much present in this moment, and unbearably smug as I finally admitted to her power. She was gleeful. It was always harder to control her when I was distracted by emotion like this. I tried to calm myself so that I would be able to put her in her place. You are in my place. Her thought was faint but intelligible. How much worse it was getting; she was strong enough to speak to me now whenever she wished. It was as bad as that first minute of consciousness. Go away. It's my place now. Never. â€Å"Wanderer, dear, no. You are not weak, and we both know that.† â€Å"Hmph.† â€Å"Listen to me. You are strong. Surprisingly strong. Our kind are always so much the same, but you exceed the norm. You're so brave it astonishes me. Your past lives are a testament to that.† My past lives maybe, but this life? Where was my strength now? â€Å"But humans are more individualized than we are,† Kathy went on. â€Å"There's quite a range, and some of them are much stronger than others. I truly believe that if anyone else had been put into this host, Melanie would have crushed them in days. Maybe it's an accident, maybe it's fate, but it appears to me that the strongest of our kind is being hosted by the strongest of theirs.† â€Å"Doesn't say much for our kind, does it?† She heard the implication behind my words. â€Å"She's not winning, Wanderer. You are this lovely person beside me. She's just a shadow in the corner of your mind.† â€Å"She speaks to me, Kathy. She still thinks her own thoughts. She still keeps her secrets.† â€Å"But she doesn't speak for you, does she? I doubt I would be able to say as much in your place.† I didn't respond. I was feeling too miserable. â€Å"I think you should consider reimplantation.† â€Å"Kathy, you just said that she would crush a different soul. I don't know if I believe that-you're probably just trying to do your job and comfort me. But if she is so strong, it wouldn't be fair to hand her off to someone else because I can't subdue her. Who would you choose to take her on?† â€Å"I didn't say that to comfort you, dear.† â€Å"Then what -â€Å" â€Å"I don't think this host would be considered for reuse.† â€Å"Oh!† A shiver of horror jolted down my spine. And I wasn't the only one who was staggered by the idea. I was immediately repulsed. I was no quitter. Through the long revolutions around the suns of my last planet-the world of the See Weeds, as they were known here-I had waited. Though the permanence of being rooted began to wear long before I'd thought it would, though the lives of the See Weeds would measure in centuries on this planet, I had not skipped out on the life term of my host. To do so was wasteful, wrong, ungrateful. It mocked the very essence of who we were as souls. We made our worlds better places; that was absolutely essential or we did not deserve them. But we were not wasteful. We did make whatever we took better, more peaceful and beautiful. And the humans were brutish and ungovernable. They had killed one another so frequently that murder had been an accepted part of life. The various tortures they'd devised over the few millennia they'd lasted had been too much for me; I hadn't been able to bear even the dry official overviews. Wars had raged over the face of nearly every continent. Sanctioned murder, ordered and viciously effective. Those who lived in peaceful nations had looked the other way as members of their own species starved on their doorstep. There was no equality to the distribution of the planet's bounteous resources. Most vile yet, their offspring-the next generation, which my kind nearly worshipped for their promise-had all too often been victims of heinous crimes. And not just at the hands of strangers, but at the hands of the caretakers they were entrusted to. Even the huge sphere of the planet had been put into j eopardy through their careless and greedy mistakes. No one could compare what had been and what was now and not admit that Earth was a better place thanks to us. You murder an entire species and then pat yourselves on the back. My hands balled up into fists. I could have you disposed of, I reminded her. Go ahead. Make my murder official. I was bluffing, but so was Melanie. Oh, she thought she wanted to die. She'd thrown herself into the elevator shaft, after all. But that was in a moment of panic and defeat. To consider it calmly from a comfortable chair was something else altogether. I could feel the adrenaline-adrenaline called into being by her fear-shoot through my limbs as I contemplated switching to a more pliant body. It would be nice to be alone again. To have my mind to myself. This world was very pleasant in so many novel ways, and it would be wonderful to be able to appreciate it without the distractions of an angry, displaced nonentity who should have had better sense than to linger unwanted this way. Melanie squirmed, figuratively, in the recesses of my head as I tried to consider it rationally. Maybe I should give up†¦ The words themselves made me flinch. I, Wanderer, give up? Quit? Admit failure and try again with a weak, spineless host who wouldn't give me any trouble? I shook my head. I could barely stand to think of it. And†¦ this was my body. I was used to the feel of it. I liked the way the muscles moved over the bones, the bend of the joints and the pull of the tendons. I knew the reflection in the mirror. The sun-browned skin, the high, sharp bones of my face, the short silk cap of mahogany hair, the muddy green brown hazel of my eyes-this was me. I wanted myself. I wouldn't let what was mine be destroyed.

Discussion Skills in Groups

Discussion skills in groups To be human is to interact with other people, to relate to others, often in groups. In groups a whole series of dynamics occur. People will have different reasons for being in a group, will want differing things out of it, may not get on equally well with everyone in that group. Many of the groups we are in have a social purpose, meeting friends, going on holiday, working on a task. Whilst we may not think about it consciously we need a range of personal/social skills to relate well with others, to come to agreements, to achieve group goals.This is particularly the case when we have to co-operate with others in order to achieve a specific work goal. In particular this occurs when working in small discussion groups, when having to make a presentation or when involved in social, political or environmental action. This document is about what you need to know and the skills that you need to develop in order to do that well. 1. FEELING SAFE What comes up I wond er what comes up for you when you find yourself in a group? Some of the feelings will probably be: Who are these people? Will I like them? Will they like me?What if someone criticises me? Or it could be: This should be fun. I’m looking forward to this. I might learn something new here. I might make new friends. Probably it will be a mix of the two. But notice that in each case what comes up are quite strong feelings. This is normal – for everyone. The important thing is to pay attention to them, to listen to them, to see what they tell you about yourself. The affective (feeling) domain is equally as important as the cognitive (thinking) domain in social experience. Some of the feelings you will have when first in a group will be to do with safety.Does it feel OK to be here? Are these people I want to be with? If you have chosen who you are with this may partly be on the basis of how safe you feel with them, supported and respected by them. Remember other people will be having similar feelings to your own. 1 Ground rules It is difficult to work well with others in a group if you are feeling insecure, setting up a framework which helps give a sense of security to the group is thus essential. This involves agreement on what are called ‘ground rules’. Ground rules should be agreed by the group members themselves.Here are five essential ones. Speaking – only one person speaks at a time, this could be as a result of putting a hand up or agreeing to take turns to speak. Listening – it is important to really listen to what the other person is saying without interrupting them. Not judging – it is really important to listen without making judgements about the other person, this is where they are coming from, respect that. Sharing – no one person should dominate the discussion, no person should be left out, everyone should be encouraged to contribute.Voice – it’s not about saying the right thing or havi ng an answer, it’s about ‘finding your voice’, which may be just to say what you’re feeling. The group task The most important thing in a task orientated group is to reach agreement on the goal and how best to achieve it. There is always a tension between individual/group needs that has to be resolved. You may thus have to put some of your own needs aside in order to achieve the set task. This does not mean ignoring them. You might want to take it in turns at the beginning just to say how you feel about being in the group before getting down to the task.Q: Is there anything you need to do before you can be really present to what we’ve got to do? 2. DISCUSSION SKILLS Sharing feelings It often really helps the group dynamic to periodically check-in with how you are feeling about the task. You might therefore make observations such as: â€Å"I feel really excited about working together on this†; â€Å"I feel really daunted about the task we hav e to do†; â€Å"I feel nervous about having anything valuable to contribute†. Such statements don’t necessarily require an answer but they do reveal what is going on for you.Others know where you’re at and can then take this into account. Feelings are kept out in the open which, if not 2 expressed, might hinder achievement of the task. They may also often strike a chord of sympathy with others. Sharing opinions For a group to achieve its task everyone needs to contribute, this means everybody needs to share their thoughts and opinions in the group. Two things may happen at first: i) you may feel you don’t have anything to say; ii) you may be nervous about sharing your ideas with others.Firstly, whatever the topic you will have some responses to it, so spend a moment or two jotting down any questions, ideas, experiences which you feel may be relevant. Secondly, it is quite alright to be tentative about what you first say. It is often only in the proc ess of discussion that your ideas will begin to become clear. Remember to hold your certainties lightly, i. e. whilst stating your opinion about a particular issue you may still find you want to refine or alter it later. Similarly other people’s starting points may not be where they finish up. Active listeningDon’t be afraid to remind the group of the ground rules for by remembering these the group will feel a safer place in which to experiment and try out ideas. Everyone has a shared responsibility here. Active listening means really listening to what someone is saying whether you agree with them or not. It means not interrupting or spending the time thinking about your answer. It is also really helpful to check out with the speaker that you have understood correctly what they are saying. This can best be done by paraphrasing what you feel they have said and reflecting that back to them. What I heard you say was†¦Ã¢â‚¬  The speaker then knows she has really been heard or can clarify any points if she needs to. When everyone feels really listened to and respected achievement of the group’s task will be much easier and more fun. 3. REACHING AGREEMENT Working co-operatively If your group is following all of these strategies – and it does take practice – you are well on the way to good co-operative working. Co-operative working involves considering different ways to set about the task and 3 agreeing on the best one. If you feel safe in the group you are less likely to mind about making compromises sometimes.Working co-operatively does not mean that everyone has to agree. You may work co-operatively and supportively to identify the main differences of opinion on an issue and to really clarify the arguments for and against different opinions. Co-operative working also means working to bring out the best in others. Difficulties and disagreements However well a group gets on there will still be difficulties and disagreements. If someone’s behaviour upsets you what should you do? First, remember the ground rules! Second, you need to share how you are feeling.There is a crucial difference between saying â€Å"You really annoy me when you play around in the group† (blaming) and â€Å"I find it difficult to focus on the task when you play around† (ownership of your own feelings). On some issues discussion may get heated and someone may need to use the ground rules to cool things down. You might say â€Å"Let’s take a few minutes out to reflect on what’s happening here. Is there a more constructive way in which we could move this forward, I wonder? † It is also fine to disagree! No one is suggesting that everyone in the group must have the same opinion on how best to do something.However, if it is a collective task, e. g. a seminar presentation, everyone will need to agree on how to share this out and work effectively together. Staying on task It always helps to stand back occasionally and watch what is going on in a group. Is someone dominating conversation, is someone staying quiet, is the group getting off task? It is always important and helpful to feed your observations back to the group. ‘Keeping on task’ can have both a narrow and a broad interpretation. You may feel that conversation is straying from the task and topic under discussion and decide to draw attention to this.You might be right, but what appears to be straying off course can sometimes lead to fruitful insights and a sharpened perception of the issue. Developing these skills will take time, you will make mistakes that you can learn from, and you will try again. Gradually you will find that working in a group is less daunting than you may have thought, that you do have something to contribute, and that ‘synergy’ begins to occur – this is when 4 the insight and output of the group begins to feel more than the sum of its individual parts. David H icks T4BW 5

Gender Roles In Their Eyes Were Watching God - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 3 Words: 896 Downloads: 4 Date added: 2019/05/29 Category Literature Essay Level High school Tags: Their Eyes Were Watching God Essay Did you like this example? Gender roles are a crucial theme in the novel Their Eyes Were Watching God by Hurston. According to the narrative, women and men play diverse roles. The women are not only thought of as the frailer gender but are also characterized by their affiliation with men. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Gender Roles In Their Eyes Were Watching God" essay for you Create order The female counterparts are portrayed as good little wives who are not allowed to speak up or disrespect their men. The women could only acquire power by marrying powerful and rich men. It was expected of men to prove their masculinity by controlling their companions and putting them in the right direction. This essay discusses the perception of masculinity and aims at describing Tea Cakers masculinity as he relates with Janie. Women get conformed to states of domesticity, passivity, and objects of desire by men. Womens actions are limited with notions of propriety and insults on their sexuality and appearances. When they show any male behaviorism the form of authority, intelligence, and ambition, they are viewed as extra masculine and hence; ugly. On the other hand, men are expected to take control and prove their masculinity to peers by showing their wives who the boss is. Although Hurstonrs writing focuses on the struggle of women in a society that is dominated by masculine beings, her use of Tea Cake as a character takes a different approach to the masculinity perception. When Tea Cake married Janie, he at first appeared to be inconsiderate and domineering to his spouse. He later proves his love for Jannie by working hard and making sacrifices, and this continued up until he passed away. Tea Cake, Janiers third husband, and lover excites her by his swift wit and enthusiasm for life, and his characteristics represent the decent carefree side of men since he believes more in gender equality. Tea Cakers support for gender equality is seen when he educates Janie on hunting and shooting guns since these are activities which are viewed as more masculine in society. It is also assumed, Tea Cake has a real liking for and understanding of Janie. He encourages Janie to enjoy her freedom and respects her personal choices. Even with all the sweet characteristics portrayed by Tea Cake, he still carries some negative behaviors towards his lover by stealing from her and being physically abusive. These bad episodes, nevertheless, make him a more realistic character than one who has only perfect optimistic qualities. Tea Cake assumes a role in Janiers life, helping her to understand herself better. By training her on gun handling, he ironically gives her the skills and tools which are eventually used to finish him off. After being bitten by a dog, the rabies he acquired were well-thought-out as amplifiers of his mistakes, for instance, jealousy. Janies stand on saving herself instead of yielding herself to the insane Tea Cake proves to her growing logic of identity and illustrates that his ultimate role in the tale is to support her in experiencing joy and safety confidently. Like all previous husbands to Janie, Tea Cake plays a supportive role and functions as a catalyst which aides in pushing Janie towards her goals. As is portrayed at the end of the novel, Janie stays hopeful and firm following the death of Tea Cake. It is fair to state that she does not depend on Tea Cake although, he plays a crucial role in her growth. In Tea Cake, Janie discovers a vivacious and creative character who likes exploring his surrounding world and encourages her desire to cultivate. When they met, Janie had already begun forming a firm, proud sense of self, and Tea Cake ends up accelerating this spiritual growth. Tea Cake can be considered as a tragic hero since his rabies fueled jealousy is what ends up destroying him. When he tries to kill Janie, because he undermines her, Janie ends up shooting him in self-defence. His pride also makes him unable to call the doctor even when in dire need. This is because of the societyrs stereotypic nature towards masculinity; that to be a real man, one must endure through pain and not cry for help from others, instead of facing the challenges with strength. Tea Cake also portrays societyrs and menrs despiteful behaviors towards women, viewing them as timid and weak characters when he tries to shoot Janie, but she later proved her capability of using such a powerful weapon and killing him in defence. Thus, one would see that men seemingly show their superiority toward women and it is unusual for women not to beaten when they fall out of direction. Finally, Tea Cake, Janies soul mate, portrays the good side of men who appreciate their wifers values. He is an incessantly young person like Janie. The two met some few months after Janiers second husband passed away and Tea Cake fascinated her with his humble behavior and joyful appeal. He has no joint aspiration and acknowledges nature and beauty. The couple sits up late laughing and talking, admiring the night and the moon. Janie finds the love fantasy which she yearned for as a young lady in Tea Cake. Tea Cake also exposes Janie to new things: he trains her how to hunt, play checkers, and how to coexist with the laborers in the Everglades. Tea Cake encourages Janie to be herself unlike her ex-husbands, who always constrained her to conceal her natural personality.